American Financial Crisis

Introduction The financial crisis, which was witnessed in the United States and the world over, has been described as one of the worst economic crises of the 21st century. Economists have termed it as the worst crisis in the economy to occur since the great depression of the 1930s. The crisis began in the year 2007.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on American Financial Crisis specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It emanated from the housing sector of the U.S. The crisis extended to other sectors of the economy. The financial sector, which is one of the pillars in the economy, was the worst hit. The crisis had a devastating impact on the US economy, with macroeconomic forces of inflation and employment being negatively affected. With the widespread effects of the crisis, policy makers were forces to come up with measures of mitigating the crisis and its effects. As it is with policies, there are long-term effects (Marsha ll, pp. 3). This paper discuses the recent economic crisis that hit the US. It discussed the underlying causes of the crisis and the impact it has had on the economy of the United States. The paper also looks into the policies that have been coined in order to mitigate the crisis and their impact on macroeconomic forces – employment, inflation and economic growth. Finally, the paper highlight the possible gaps that are prevalent the economy in line with the crisis and the possible routes stabilizing the economy. Causes of the US Financial Crisis The financial crisis of the United States is a crisis which smoldered from the late 1990s. As many analysts have pointed out, it began in the US housing market. From the late 1900s, the prices of houses in the United States swelled at an unusually quicker pace. The swelling of house prices can be linked to three main triggering factors. These are low rates of interests which were persisted during those times, overgenerous lending by t he financial institutions, as well as speculations by the investors in the financial and the housing sectors. The housing bubble busted, and this was coupled with a crushing of other asset bubbles. This resulted in the credit crisis. Many economists have pointed out that there was a possibility of stopping the crisis could be averted at these early stages. However, many complex financial innovations were made in order to reduce the risk. It is these complex solutions that made the crisis spill to the financial market of the United States and the US economy.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More All financial institutions, which work for profits, came up with quite complicated financial processes. These processes had similar characteristics – lack of adequate risk analysis, highly leveraged borrowing and lack of adequate regulation of betting on outcomes. These processes pro ved inefficient when the asset prices flopped (â€Å"The Financial Crisis Inquiry Report†, pp. 417). The real effect of the shouldering financial turmoil was witnessed between 2007 and 2009. It began in the US mortgage lending market. Real problems began in 2007 when the Federal Home Mortgage Corporation– Freddie Mac made an announcement that it was stopping the purchasing of high-risk mortgages. At the same time, New Century Financial Corporation, which was the US leading lender of mortgages to riskier customers, became bankrupt. These two events ushered in a real turmoil in the housing sector as the price of houses began to drop in a dramatic way. US credit rating agencies began downgrading risk assessments of the asset-backed instruments of finance. In the middle of the year 2007, the risk rose disabling financial product issuers from paying interests. Thence, it was realized that the credit bubbles and the burst in housing would result in losses on the asset-backed financial instruments. Mortgage-backed securities were downgraded from that period into the year 2008 so that they could reassess their risk. This severely dislocated the financial markets (Jansen, Beulig and Kai, pp. 1). The credit markets continued to be tight, the financial and mortgage companies were given support by the Federal Reserve. The support was given through lending facilities that offered credit on a short-term basis as well as auctions arising from the sale of mortgage-related products. These actions were inadequate or insufficient as far as the rapid falling prices of assets were concerned. It could not stop the price of assets from further falling. Institutions that were trusted with funds opted to relieve themselves from the financial risks through replenishing the risk-weighted capital rations. Bear Stearns, which is one of the largest Investment banks in America, had heavily invested in mortgage backed securities. As a result of the downgrading of the credit rat ings, the bank was severely impacted. The bank could not recapitalize and adequately cover itself from the losses. Its stock ended up collapsing in the year 2008. The bank was acquired the Morgan Chase bank in March 2008.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on American Financial Crisis specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The takeover was facilitated by the government. The mortgage default rates continued to rise causing a problem to mortgage lenders as the collateral value fell. The largest United States mortgage lender – IndyMac collapsed in July 2008. Its assets were incorporated into the federal ownership (Marshall, pp. 3). The crisis spilt in the financial industry as mortgage firms sought to increase their capital due to downgraded securities. On the leading list was Lehman Brothers Bank, which became bankrupt. The bank was unable to raise enough capital to cover the downgraded securities. This demonstrated th at the US government was segregate on bank bailouts, which further resulted to a rise in lending rates between banks. America International Group, which was a leading credit default insurer in the United States, was suffering from liquidity problems. AIG was bailed out by the Federal Reserve – 85 billion dollars. The Group offered 79.9 per cent equity. The conflict in the industry continued to take the course with activities that further worsened the crisis (Marshall, pp. 10). As a result, the activities, in the banking industry caused the increase in the volatility in the financial market. The Down Jones Industrial Average which is an index which covers analysis on the largest 30 publicly listed companies among them large banks kept registering a drop. The largest drop was recorded on 29 September the year 2008. The investor confidence fell significantly. Investors opted to invest in safer assets like oil, the US dollar and gold. There was a rise in demand for treasury bills , which resulted in a drop in their returns. Market firms continued facing lost of pressures (Marshall, pp. 15). From the discussion above, we can summarize the causes of the financial crisis in the US as the problem in the US housing sector. Under this, we have the creation and collapse of the housing bubble. We also have the role played by the financial industry – the interaction of financial instruments and the response to the housing crash by the financial industry.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Effects of the US Financial Crisis The financial crisis has an extremely significant impact on the economy of the US. These effects even spilt to other economies of the world. The overall economic impact of the financial crisis is that it created conditions that led to a downturn of the US economy. With the setting, of recession – all the effects related to a recessing economy have been witnessed (Suter and Mark, pp. 24). The great recession resulting for the financial crisis has extremely harmful effects on the labor industry of the US. Thus unemployment became inevitable. Most financial institutions could not sustain themselves in the market and had to close down with some undergoing buyouts and acquisitions. The banking and financial industry had a lot of staffs laid off. The financial industry had been destabilized and was so weakened. Investors ended up loosing trust in the financial institutions. The financial industry is supportive of the manufacturing industry and all other sectors. The accessibility to credit was jeopardized leading to layoffs in the manufacturing industry as companies struggled to adjust to the realities in the economy. A research that was conducted between November 2008 and April of 2010 approximately 40 percent of households in the US has been laid off (Suter and Mark, pp. 24). Inflation came to be a reality in the United States. As part of the measures of adjusting to the crisis, industries had to raise the prices of their products. There was a sharp rise in prices of goods and services. Coupled with the unemployment and the inability of people to pay the house mortgages, the United States saw a sharp downturn in economic growth. The economic crisis has led to a cut down in household expenditure with high cut downs seen in families with the unemployed populations. The standards of living of the Americans dropped drastically. People could not access finances for investments. The social welfare of the Americans was highly com promised with the cut down in earnings and the inflation. Business went down with closures being common for weak businesses. The crisis impacted the trading environment in the United States with the volume of international trade drastically dropped. The US lost trading ground in the international market with its competitors like China taking advantage of the crisis to gain grounds in international trade. This further contributed to the reduction in economic growth of the US (Suter and Mark, pp. 24). Measures of Averting the Crisis – Fiscal and Monetary The United States government and policy makers had to come up with both physical and monetary measures embedded in legislation. These were aimed at mitigating the consequences that the crisis was on the economy. Several responses were developed with some hitting the walls (â€Å"The Financial Crisis Inquiry Report: Final Report of the National Commission on the Causes of the Financial and Economic Crisis in the United States,à ¢â‚¬  p. 112). As the crisis continued to smolder, a number of policy measures were taken with the aim of stopping the crisis from sprouting to the entire economy. The first measure was the lowering of interest rates and introduction of schemes to prevent enhanced liquidity in order to abate the credit crisis that was emerging. The second measure was the taking over of the Bear Stearns bank which was facilitated by the state. Legislation was also passed at this pint which sought to mitigate mortgage foreclosure via demand stimulation. All these failed to stop the crisis with the Federal Reserve being accused of favoring certain banks in offering credit (Marshall, pp. 3). After the real shocks of the crisis were felt, the government of United States had to move to cub the recession. The treasury was to lead in implementing the Emergency Economy Stabilization Act. The act was passed in October the year 2008. The treasury injected a capital into the financial institutions in exchange for common equity stakes and preferred stock. This was followed by massive bailouts of financial institutions for instance AIG. The other policy was the lowering of the rates of interests by the Federal Reserve and the raising of liquidity. The credit easing policy supported the purchasing treasury bills and the mortgage-backed securities. The Securities and Exchange Commission suspended the short-selling of the institutions of finance. Also, a fiscal plan known as Homeowner Affordability and Stability Plan was initiated which helped the struggling home owners in the refinancing of their mortgages (Marshall, pp. 3). One of the most famous policy responses to the crisis is the famous fiscal stimulus. This policy response was developed by the Obama administration and voted into law by the US senate. Under this policy, the government of US government released 787 billion dollars. The legislation was transformed into law in 2009. This piece of legislation awarded cuts in taxes in a numb er of sensitive areas in the economy. 273 billion dollars were to be awarded to individuals and 51 billion dollars set apart for companies. 111 billion was reserved for infrastructural investment, 59 billion for healthcare, 43 billion for energy and 53 billion for education (Marshall, pp. 3). Criticism of the Policies and Suggestions Some of these policy measures were extremely resourceful in stopping the crisis from further advancing. The economic bailouts and the reduction in the rates of interests helped the economy to recover. The bailouts helped to increase the reserves of the financial institutions. Though the bailout was effective, it has had certain level f inefficiency. Most financial institutions have been accused of taking advantage of the bailout funds. They manipulate it and use it making more profits on their side while leaving those who were to benefit to suffer from large burden of interests (Kolb, pp. 59). The failure to bail some banks by the Federal Reserve and th e treasury bills was meant to ensure that banks exercised responsibility. However, this step had negative consequences on bank investments. Many banks collapsed leading to a lapse in investor confidence. The Lehman Bank was left to collapse because of bankruptcy. Inter-banking lending rates shoot up leading to the development of a crisis in the banking industry (Kolb, pp. 59). The government of the United States through the treasury managed in stopping the crisis from spreading further. However, the crisis had already reached a level where almost all sectors of the economy had been infected or affected. The financial stability plan is still being implemented by the treasury with a lot of loopholes being witnessed. A number of economic analysts are still not satisfied with the scope of the plan. They argue that the plan is not comprehensive enough to address the financial challenges facing the financial institutions and the economy of the US. The banking sector of the US still remain s troubled. The amount of money set aside for the financial stability plan has been critiqued. Many analysts point that the money is far too little to addresses the asset problem in US banks (Kolb, pp. 59). More fiscal and monetary policies that have long term goals or objectives of eliminating possible problems in the financial sector need to be developed. The US government has focused a lot of the short-term goals in of ensuring the direct effects of the crisis have been addressed. Tighter monetary policies of addressing the challenges that are born from institutions for instance speculation can be part of the long-term policies. Speculation was one of the roots caused of the crisis that engulfed the housing sector of the US paving the way to problems in banking and financial markets (Kroszner and Benjamin, pp. 25). The United stated economy has to some extend recovered from the impacts of the financial crisis. The economy has not fully recovered as it is being implied by treasury and the recovery plan. The Federal Reserve should continue with plans of offering more loans as most financial institutions have not regained the optimum capacity of service offering. As the economy continued to recover through the short-term policies, the focus has to be on the long term economic measures of regulating the financial sector. Such policies will govern actions and activities of financial institutions thereby preventing unitary actions, which are likely to destabilize the sector (Kroszner and Benjamin, pp. 25). Conclusion The Financial crisis, which hit the United States, began in the housing sector though the housing sector was not the main crisis. The crisis was transitional moving from the problems in the housing sector to the banking industry and the financial markets and the entire economy. A number of fiscal and monetary policies have been used to avert the crisis. Some are still in in implementation. The government has to shift and focus on long-term regulatory policies that will prevent such crises in the future. Works Cited Jansen, Leo H, Nick Beulig, and Kai Linsmann. Us Subprime and Financial Crisis – to What Extent Can You Safeguard Financial System Risks?: [research Paper]. München ; Ravensburg: Grinverl, 2008. Print. Marshall, John. 2009. The financial crisis in the US: key events, causes and responses. Web. from https://www.voltairenet.org/IMG/pdf/US_Financial_Crisis.pdf Kolb, Robert W. Lessons from the Financial Crisis: Causes, Consequences, and Our Economic Future. Hoboken, N.J: Wiley, 2010. Print Kroszner, Randy, and Benjamin M. Friedman. Reforming U.S. Financial Markets: Reflections Before and Beyond Dodd-Frank. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 2011. Print. Suter, Christian, and Mark Herkenrath. World Society in the Global Economic Crisis. Berlin: Lit, 2012. Print. The Financial Crisis Inquiry Report: Final Report of the National Commission on the Causes of the Financial and Economic Crisis in the United States. Washingt on, DC: Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission, 2010. Print. This essay on American Financial Crisis was written and submitted by user Danny Garrett to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Surrogate motherhood Essays

Surrogate motherhood Essays Surrogate motherhood Essay Surrogate motherhood Essay Surrogate motherhood is a practice that has been used for a long time but has been evolving in lieu of the technological advancement that has recently been witnessed. Definition of a surrogate mother is one who carries a child through gestation on behalf of another woman. The reasons why this happens are varied and hence elicit different responses. Traditionally, surrogacy involved a man donating his sperm to a woman other than his wife in order for her to give birth to a child adopted by the childless couple. However, with time the term surrogate motherhood has evolved to involve many other practices (Franklin S. Dec.2006). The question is, does surrogate motherhood help the society or harm? As stated above, surrogate motherhood has been around for a long time but only the traditional methods were used to get a child. With the advances made in science concerning reproduction, there has evolved other ways of getting children through surrogacy. It consists of either artificial insemination, embryo adoption and donation, gestational surrogacy or the use of the ovum from the natural mother (Maule L. S. Schmid K. 2006). Each of these is different and as such use different methods to bring about conception and consequently birth of a child. In the early times, it would be used by childless couples but with the change in human sexuality it has come to include people who prefer to be homosexuals. They are now able to be parents of children who have their genes even if it is a family of two men or two women. Also with the rise of feminism, women who prefer not to get married are also using sperms from the sperm bank to get children. Initially one could only use the obvious method of sexual intercourse to get a woman pregnant but now there are sperm banks where men donate their sperms for commercial use. People in the world have different views concerning surrogate motherhood. Some are for it while others oppose it. Mostly it is for moral reasons that people oppose it but the legal aspect also sets in (McLachlan H. V. September 2008). Over time, there have been arguments for it in that it helps those who cannot be able to get a child of their own for different reasons. With the technology that is in place now, there are many ways to ensure that one gets a child and if they all fail then they can turn to surrogate motherhood. There are many people who view surrogacy as the ultimate gift from one woman to another. This is very common in New Zealand (Shaw R. 2008). When a woman cannot be able to get a child either due to lack of a womb or ovaries gets a gift from another one. This is seen as the greatest gift that one can give to another one. It is also viewed as a spiritual practice that enhances ones spirituality. In this way, a friend or relative can assist others get full satisfaction of having a family by providing them with the gift of life embodied in the child. There is opportunity for people to create kinship ties where there was no such hope. Kinship ties are very important to all individuals and hence to be greatly desired. Also, there seems to be a very special bond between grandparents and the children (Mander G. November 2007). When the children are unable to get children, the grandparents may be greatly affected and thus this comes as a solution. It is an opportunity for them to get a child who is genetically related to them instead of adopting a child who is not directly related to them (Hargreaves K. 2006). This is usually done through donor insemination and the resulting child is accepted by the entire family and thus a member.

How the development of corporate governance improved the overall Dissertation

How the development of corporate governance improved the overall quality of uk band management - Dissertation Example In the course of the presentation and interpretation of results, it was established that banks that pay the best of salaries and have an effective remuneration programs retain their employees over a very long periods of time in their organisations. In the same way, those that paid less suffered frequent cases of employee turnover in the forms of resignation and unannounced quitting of position. Literature has indeed showed that when companies put in proactive efforts through the standardisation of remuneration as suggested by the UK corporate governance code to retain their employees, there is a superlative impact that this would have on company performance (Iedema and Poppe, 2001). First and foremost, it will be noted that companies with long serving employees can be assured of a human resource base that is in-tuned with the organisational culture in place at the workplace (National Technical Information Services, 1987). Subsequently, the rhythm of customer participation will be eas ily read by such employees, who would in turn offer services and products that meet customer specification. In the long run, customers who have their specifications met will become satisfied with service received and will want to continue doing business with the bank. Another factor that links employee retention to bank performance is the fact that employees who have worked among themselves for long get along easily and better. Often times when new employees would have to come in who will be coached and guided as to how to deliver service, the rates of productivity of such employees will not be as effective as those who can work independently or with limited support (Ilies and Scott, 2006). Meanwhile, the levels of productivity recorded by banks can be translated directly into tangible fiscal growth. Acknowledgement I would like to acknowledge the efforts of all people who have been of help to me in the course of writing this dissertation. Names like ................. are worth ment ioning. Thank you to you all. Contents Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1 Research background 1 1.2 Research rationale 1 1.3 Research aims and objectives 4 Chapter 2: Literature Review 5 2.2 Corporate governance in the banking industry 7 2.5 Operational Risk 12 2.5.1 Regulatory and Statutory framework for enforcing Corporate Governance 13 2.7 Measurement of Bank Performance 19 Chapter 3: Methodology 21 3.1 Introduction 21 3.2 Aims and Objectives of the Research 21 3.3 Research Approach 22 3.4 Research Design 22 3.5 Research Theory and Strategy 23 3.6 Research Method 24 3.7 Reliability and Validity 26 3.8 Limitations 26 Chapter 4: Findings 27 Chapter 5: Discussion 40 Chapter 6. Conclusion, Limitations and Recommendations 55 6.1 Conclusion 55 6.2 Limitations 58 6.3 Recommendations 60 Reference 61 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Research background Undoubtedly, the degree of the collapses brought about by the Financial Crisis across the world as well as the ramification for the entire global ec onomy is documented in many other places. Consequently, many would want to know whether the failure is as a result of poor corporate governance or not. As a response to isolated cases such as the Marconi collapse in 2001 in the UK, many would argue that it was not a failure of corporate governance because the collapse was mainly after a misguided strategy

Analysis Of Mans Search For Meaning By Viktor Frankl Essay

Analysis Of Mans Search For Meaning By Viktor Frankl - Essay Example Next, Frankl mentions creativity and enjoyment as factors that contribute to the meaningfulness of life. Most people feel their lives to be meaningful when they have opportunities for self-expression. Meaninglessness is sensed, when a person is deprived of the above-mentioned outlets and isn't able to admit meaningfulness of both negative and positive life events, i.e. – in a particular case of death camp imprisonment – suffering. "Everything can be taken from a man but one thing: the last of the human freedoms—to choose one’s attitude in any given set of circumstances, to choose one’s own way†. Therefore, inability to admit the fact that even the bitterest situations have to mean, i.e. inability to change one's attitude towards unfavorable circumstances that cannot be changed, is another element of the state of meaninglessness. The third element of the discussed state is demolition of the values that were held by an individual: "Under the inf luence of a world which no longer recognized the value of human life and human dignity, which had robbed man of his will and had made him an object to be exterminated [†¦] the personal ego finally suffered a loss of values". Another element contributing to the state of meaninglessness is a lack of love, for Frankl sees love as a powerful motivator.According to Oakley, â€Å"people who find their own lives meaningless are also suffering, in varying degrees, failure of motivation, anhedonia, and distress†.

Capital Communes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Capital Communes - Essay Example church"ii Here, we see Benjamin's Marxist roots. Yet we also informed by his premonitory observance of the ideological drift of civil society toward what he argues is a phantasmagoria: a dream world of market based consumer-citizenship, that at once and the same time, the teleological mechanism by which authoritarianism is obscured. If the Arcade stood as the preeminent example as a built space for inculcating the collective unconscious toward misrecognition of Napoleon Bonaparte's true intent, and in this case, that would be speculative market measures that began to stratify the populations of Paris and its environs by class, then Haussmann's project of urban expansion with its "lavish, self-glorification of the bourgeoise" with its "loans totaling hundreds of millions of francs" confrontation with those living in marginal spaces became the victims of nothing short of "engineered destruction."iii Nevertheless, Haussmann's project proceeded as a renewal strategy for Paris. He also employed a large scale constituency of laborers to participate in the construction of the rehabilitation; hence stabilizing his political position against confrontation with worker dissent. Rationale for this perspective was not unfounded as, 'the Parisian workers were better organized militarily than in any earlier rebellion; that the street widening undertaken during the administration of Napoleon III would necessarily work to their advantage, should the assault on the city succeed; that for the first time, the barricades would be defended by cannons and regularly organized troops."iv The environmental impact of Haussmann's urban planning was pronounced in design, and also in terms of security. Haussmannization was distinctly a project of "strategic embellishment" that applied the concept of direct access to the workers' districts by opening up the thoroughfares for direct barricade. The system of open boulevards with a central node for systemization of public works and oversight also held promise for alleviation of poverty of districts such as Faubourg St-Marceau, through ready access to trade. The work commenced in the city centre surrounding Ile-de-la-Cit adjacent to the Cathedral of Notre-Dame. He also extended the cross between the Louvre and the Tuileries, built the Boulevard Sbastopol. A site of leisure, Place du Chtelet became the center of the City's system of boulevards. Prior to his office, Paris was a city of moderate dimensions. Haussmann's new plan of advancement for the capital city resulted in the definition of neighborhoods, or modern system of 20 arrondissements. Public transportation also saw expansion, and the "opening of Paris" to the market linked the main road network between Gare St-Lazare the Rue Auber and Gare du Nord (built between 1861 and 1864 by Jacques-Ignace Hittorff), Gare de Lyon and Gare Montparnasse the Rue de Rennes. Tivoli Arcade, Paris A new system of

Causes of Human Trafficking

Causes of Human Trafficking An examination of the issues and challenges of trafficking bring us face to face with the stark reality of the situation. Hordes of women and children are victims of grave human rights violation having been trafficked by vested interests using lure, deceit, compulsion, threat and coercion before being pushed into the gory world of CSE or other forms of bondage. They are subjected to physical and mental trauma, economic deprivation and violations of their dignity. The post trafficking scenario finds the victim at the end of the tunnel with almost no hope of survival. Vulnerability situations and gender discrimination have been facilitating and perpetuating trafficking. A few alarming trends that have emerged in recent years are sexual exploitation through sex tourism, paedophilia, prostitution in pilgrim towns and other tourist destinations and cross-border trafficking. Trafficking of women and children is definitely not a localised issue. There may be a few instances of trafficking within the community but it is largely a borderless crime transgressing the boundaries of police stations, districts, states, countries and regions. Over the years various countries in the South Asian region have emerged as sources, destinations and/or transit points. More so India has emerged as a source, destination and transit for trafficking for varied purposes such as for commercial sexual exploitation and labour. While intra-country trafficking forms the bulk of the trafficked victims, cross-border trafficking also takes place, especially from Nepal and Bangladesh. Women and children are also trafficked to the Middle Eastern countries and other parts of the world for purposes of cheap labour and commercial sexual exploitation. Trafficking though not reported from many places happens everywhere. The situation is worse in underdeveloped regions. Here come into play the push and pull factors of trafficking and its interplay with the forces of demand and supply. For instance trafficking of women and children from the North-Eastern states of India and bordering countries, in both directions, is a serious issue. The long drawn extremist activities as well as the ethnic clashes and conflicts between several groups in this region have made women and children in the entire region highly vulnerable. Lack of infrastructural development and livelihood options have exacerbated the situation  [1]  . Since trafficking in this area cuts across different states and countries, it needs to be studied in detail and dealt with appropriately by the agencies of the Government of India, along with the state governments and appropriate NGOs working in this field. While the pull factors appear to be the dominant cause of trafficking, the push factors not only contribute to but exacerbate the situation. It is the economically backward and socially discriminated and deprived sections of society, who are the most vulnerable. Even among them the girl child is the worst hit as she is regarded as a liability. The gender discrimination prevalent in the social milieu and different forms of violence against women like infanticide, female foeticide adds to the vulnerability. This is further accentuated during periods of acute economic distress like drought, flood, food shortage, etc. The debt crisis due to economic deprivation as well as the collapse of social security systems has spurred migration, which has also eventually contributed to trafficking. That trafficking is a low-risk and high-profit venture is not doubted. A well established trafficker with many links may easily have an extremely profitable and safe business of trading in women and children, with an income running into several lakhs a year  [2]  . In comparison the earnings of the trafficked persons are a pittance. There appears to be no instance where illegal wealth amassed by the trafficker has been forfeited. Action on this front by all the governments is essential as a deterrent also since it is a source of black money in the economy. While exploring the links between migration and trafficking, it emerged that restrictions on womens migration, coupled with lack of protective measures increases their vulnerability to trafficking. Therefore, migration has to be understood and addressed from a developmental perspective; if trafficking is to be prevented. There is a strong linkage between migration with gender, development and good governance. A holistic approach, addressing all these dimensions, is called for. Safe migration, prevention of trafficking and containment of HIV/AIDS are central to the development the south Asian region. These are parameters having a direct bearing on public safety and, therefore, on national security. Anti trafficking strategies need to recognise peoples rights to move with informed choice. With the surge in tourism in several countries of South Asia, sex tourism and related trafficking has also gone up. The governments of many developing countries with a view to encouraging tourism and consequent economic development turn a blind eye to these problems. Undoubtedly, economic development cannot be at the cost of exploitation and trafficking. On the whole there is hardly any awareness or any conscious effort to address the issues concerned. The rehabilitative scenario presents a very dismal picture. More often than not, the efforts are disjointed and ad-hoc. There are no institutionalised mechanisms in most of the countries and states of India. The counselling and vocational training imparted in the rehabilitation homes are usually dictated by the availability of facilities and resources and not by the best interests of the victims. The needs of the rescued person need to be considered in a comprehensive manner. Along with psycho-social intervention, medical care, vocational training etc also have to be taken into account. Livelihood options have to be provided to the victims. Micro-credit and such other facilities need to be extended. Once rehabilitated a follow up mechanism needs to be in place to see that there is no retrafficking. There is a need to provide them access and awareness to such facilities through help lines, help kiosks, public awareness campaigns, etc. Trafficking of women and children has to be addressed in the specific context of the push factors in the concerned community. Since the exploiters take advantage of the helplessness of poor rural families, preventive action must necessarily involve empowering the powerless, especially in rural areas. Concerted efforts by the government, in cooperation with credible NGOs and PRIs can be helpful in achieving this. Thus an integrated approach involving the three components of à ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  prevention, protection and prosecutionà ¯Ã‚ £Ã‚ §Ãƒ ¯Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚  in effectively addressing trafficking is needed. Since trafficking is an organised crime, involving a multiplicity of actors linked together in a chain, professional methods of dealing with them are called for. Certainty and stringency of punishment of the exploiters, without any delay whatsoever, is the essential requirement for preventing trafficking. Simultaneously, the victims need to be rescued and rehabilitated in a sustainable manner. As lack of priority, time and sensitivity as well as ignorance of the issues concerned are commonly seen as the factors responsible for the present day dismal picture in enforcement, an effective networking of the law enforcement agencies with NGOs can make adequate dent in the given situation. The response scenario with respect to trans-border trafficking is fraught with innumerable challenges and problems. The nationality of the trafficked person often becomes a serious issue. Another issue with respect to trans-border trafficking is that of the procedures of repatriation. In fact, many rescued victims are confined to rescue homes for more than a decade despite the fact that they had to suffer exploitation in brothels for only a few months. The post-rescue non-rehabilitative scenario is not only traumatic but also violative of human rights. The problems are aggravated because the host country usually refuses to acknowledge the nationality of the person. In many instances, the victims are unable to recollect the details of their parentage and original village, causing difficulties in verification and authentication. Appropriate governmental systems are yet to take shape and become functional. This is an area that needs immediate attention. There is limited bilateral and re gional cooperation espically in relation to law enforcement, border interdiction, victim repatriation and prevention. There is a deficiency in collection, analysis and dissemination of trafficking data and information sharing. Trans-border bilateral arrangements are immediately called for to address these issues. It is high time that the concerned government agencies took initiative in this regard. For South Asia regional criminal justice cooperation is particularly important as much of the cross border trafficking that takes place is intra regional and currently there is no formal regional police arrangement (SAARCPOL) to combat such transnational crimes. The situation in the country presents a picture of lack of cohesion and coordination. Whether it is intra-state trafficking, inter-state trafficking or trans-border trafficking, the agencies involved in rescue do not seem to have any coordination with the agencies concerned with rehabilitation. The issue of missing women and children has been seen in isolation and was never seen in correlation with trafficking. There is no common platform linking up prevention strategies between source and destination areas. The absence of a national coordinating/monitoring agency has been a serious impediment in justice delivery and protection of human rights. Therefore, in order to ensure the best interests of the victims, to bring about effective coordination at the national level and to coordinate preventive strategies, programmes and polices, there is also a need for a national nodal agency to combat trafficking. The number of non-governmental organisations working in the field has increased enormously during the last few years. However, the vast majority of them are located in urban centres and very few have grassroots connections. There is a dire need for genuine and concerned NGOs to work on anti-trafficking in the rural areas, especially in the source and transit areas. Their synergy with the PRIs, can yield good dividends. Moreover the NGOs are mostly working on rescue and post-rescue activities, including protection and prosecution. There are very few NGOs which are focussed on prevention of trafficking. This area also craves for attention by the civil society. Trafficking of women and children is the ultimate violation of human rights, but on the other hand, the response of the government and non-governmental sector is more or less ad hoc and individual-oriented, and seldom institutionalised. The extent and depth of exploitation of the trafficked victims have never been fathomed by the agencies concerned and, therefore, the response scenario has been dismal. The study also shows that post-rescue programmes lack the essence of empowerment. The welfare approach, which is commonplace, has to be replaced by a rights-based approach, where the survivors, the victims as well as prospective victims (the vulnerable ones) should be involved not only in developing strategies but also in implementing them. A participatory and holistic approach can be in the best interests of the victim, survivor and all concerned. As is seen poverty and illiteracy are the main elements constituting the substratum for trafficking. Herein operates the demand factor. This demand is fuelled by several other factors like the impunity with which the traffickers can operate, thanks to the distortions in law enforcement. The low risk enjoyed by the exploiters, coupled with the high profit in this world of crass commercialisation, ensures perpetuation of trafficking. Whereas the traffickers have no restriction on court jurisdictions or the boundaries between police stations, districts, states, and even nations in carrying out their trade, the enforcement agencies are bogged down by restrictions and limitations of all sorts, which are effectively capitalised by the traffickers. The response by the government agencies and even civil society has established that they have been able to address only the tip of the iceberg. The trends and dimensions of the problem of trafficking has exposed how it is the ultimate human right s violation and how holistic developmental issues are deeply linked to it and which needed to be addressed for successfully combating the menace.

Opposition between Art and Reality in Shakespeares The Tempest Essay

Opposition between Art and Reality in The Tempest      Ã‚  Ã‚   The Tempest is a self-reflexive play that explores the boundaries of art and reality. Shakespeare's island is a realm controlled by the artist figure; where the fabulous, the ideal and the imaginative are presented as both illusory and palpable, and where the audience is held in an indeterminate state, a "strange repose". The juxtaposition of the world of art with political and social realities explored by representative characters is the central contrast of the play, and is foregrounded by the use of non-verbal techniques. These techniques allow the audience to appreciate the art that facilitates the spectacle they watch, as well as understand that the ideal remains an illusory state impinged on by concerns of the real world. This contrast does not resolve itself; rather, it remains inconclusive and leaves us, according to Russ McDonald, in a "marginal condition between expectation and understanding, affirmation and skepticism, comedy and tragedy".    The opening storm scene represents the collapse of all the civility and social order of the known world. The effectiveness of the storm is made possible by the opening "tempestuous noise of thunder and lightning" which pre-empts the events to come. The storm immediately catapults the reader into an understanding of the characters on board the ship. It exposes us to the way in which the characters' social assumptions capitulate when they are exposed to adversity; and leads us to expect that on their arrival on the island they will be reformed. However, quite the reverse is true - in the second act we are presented with men who appear even More zealously political now that they are free of havin... ...tion between art and reality is developed simultaneously by dialogue and a series of non-verbal techniques.    Works Cited and Consulted Alan Durband. (Ed.) (1984). The Tempest. Hauppauge, New York: Barron's Educational Series Inc. Deborah Willis, 'Shakespeare's Tempest and the Discourse of Colonialism', Studies in English Literature 1500-1900, 29, no.2, (1989) Eric Cheyfitz, The Poetics of Imperialism: Translation and Colonization from The Tempest to Tarzan, (Oxford University Press, 1991) Ritchie, D. and Broussar, A. (1997). American History: The Early Years to 1877. New York: Glencoe Kanoff, Acott. (1998). Your Study Guide to William Shakespeare: The Tempest. Cleveland: The Cleveland Play House Education Department William Shakespeare, The Tempest, ed. Frank Kermode, with an introduction by Frank Kermode, (Arden, 1964)